Module 2: Understanding Gender-Based Violence (GBV)

Before we delve into definitions of gender-based violence, it is important that we are clear about what we mean by gender. Understanding gender is a crucial first step before engaging in conversations about gender-based violence (GBV). Gender is often misunderstood as being limited to binary categories (male/female), when in fact it encompasses a complex set of dimensions, including gender identity, gender expression, biological sex, and attraction (Killermann, 2013). Clarifying these concepts can help move beyond stereotypes and recognise how rigid gender norms and misunderstandings can contribute to violence, discrimination, and exclusion. As the Council of Europe notes, GBV is rooted in unequal power relations and socially constructed gender roles (Council of Europe, 2011), making it essential to begin with a shared understanding of what gender means. In order to reach this understanding, we can use the Genderbread Person. The Genderbread Person is a helpful visual tool that teaches us that gender is not a single, fixed category, but a combination of different aspects of who we are. It breaks gender down into four key components: gender identity (how we see ourselves in terms of gender), gender expression (how we present ourselves through clothing, behaviour, or voice), biological sex (the physical characteristics we’re born with), and attraction (who we are romantically or sexually drawn to). These aspects exist on spectrums, rather than in strict categories like “male” or “female.” This model helps us understand that every person’s experience of gender is unique and that assumptions based on appearance or stereotypes can be misleading and harmful.

Grasping the complexity of gender through tools like the Genderbread Person is conducive to clarifying the nature and dynamics of gender-based violence (GBV). GBV takes place within a broader context of systemic inequalities and patriarchal power relations and as such, victims/survivors are targeted because of their gender, with women and girls being disproportionately victimised (WHO, 2019). At the same time, people who express their gender in ways that challenge traditional ideas —such as members of the LGBTIQA+ community—may be targeted because of their gender identity, perceived gender or gender expression for example by “not acting like a man” or “not dressing like a woman.” This violence is often rooted in efforts to police or punish those who defy binary or stereotypical roles related to “masculinity” and “femininity” (EIGE, 2022). Moreover, even violence by men against men who do not belong to the LGBTIQA+ community can be gendered in that it can be a way to reassert hegemonic masculinity (Perry, 2005; Silberschmidt, 2001). Recognising gender as multi-dimensional allows us to understand that GBV affects primarily women and girls, but also people of diverse gender identities and expressions, particularly those who are marginalised or stigmatised because of how they live their gender or sexuality (Council of Europe, 2011; EIGE, 2022). Before you move any further – take this mental note: some individuals and groups are at greater risk of experiencing GBV, but anyone can be the target of violence.

Another useful concept to keep in mind when thinking about GBV is intersectionality. This concept, coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989, is commonly used to describe individuals’ location and the intersections of interlocking mechanisms and systems of oppression such as sexism, ageism, classism, racism, and more. When thinking about GBV we need to keep intersectionality in mind, because gender intersects in important ways with other aspects of an individual identity, often creating specific and intersecting vulnerabilities and experiences of abuse. An example of this concerns how gender and migrant status intersect creating greater vulnerability to intimate partner violence (IPV) among migrant women who may depend on their partners/spouses for residence permits in host countries (Jelenic, 2019).

The main statistic you have to keep in mind is 1 in 3 women will experience physical or sexual violence in their lifetime. Very often this violence this violence takes place early on in life and is at the hand of intimate partners.

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Caption: Infographic on physical and sexual violence among young women (Human Reproduction Programme and World Health Organisation, n.d.)   ℹ️

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Caption: Infographic on IPV among young women (World Health Organisation, 2021)   ℹ️

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Looking at relevant intersections, recent FRA data sheds light on aspects of discrimination targeting LGBTIQA+ communities – with a specific focus on intersex people in the infographic below – which often spiral into violence, including of a sexual nature.

When thinking about GBV among youth, you may want to check out statistics relative to your country. For instance, data from Italy speaks to a worrying rise in controlling behaviours symptomatic of coercive control (see below for a better understanding of what this means) via technological means among young people (IPSOS & Save the Children, 2024) Bear in mind that statistics vary from country to country, are not always readily available – especially when it comes to individuals at the intersections of different forms of oppression – and never tell the whole story. It is common to refer to the “dark figure of crime”, namely the crime that is not reported and thus is not recorded. A lot more violence and abuse are taking place than what the official statistics tell us, as research shows that many people may struggle to identify their experience as one of violence or do not open up about the abuse, including for fear and shame.

EU and international documents and definitions Key European definitions recognise structural inequalities, emphasising the disproportionate burden experienced by women. A landmark document in the field of GBV which we can turn to for a thorough definition of GBV is the Council of Europe’s Istanbul Convention. The Istanbul Convention, formally known as the Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, represents the only legally binding international treaty designed to protect individuals—particularly women—from all forms of gender-based violence (Council of Europe, n.d.). Since its opening for signature in 2011, nearly all Council of Europe member states have either signed or ratified it. Notably, Italy, Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands have all completed both steps, demonstrating their commitment to implementing its comprehensive standards and strengthening protections at national level. This commitment also translates into ensuring national legal documents reflect the definitions of GBV used in the Convention and that adequate measures stemming from them are put into place. As regards definitions, the Council of Europe Istanbul Convention recognises that women are the main targets of GBV and defines “gender-based violence against women” as violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women disproportionately’ (p.3). The DIRECTIVE (EU) 2024/1385 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 14 May 2024 on combating violence against women and domestic violence, another key document in the field of GBV, echoes the definitions included in the Istanbul Convention. Another useful definition of GBV, which builds upon the insights stemming from the Genderbread person is the one employed by the International Planned Parenthood Federation (2022) where GBV is defined as “any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will [and thus without their consent] and is based on gender norms and unequal power relationships”.

You should keep in mind that in the European Union, GBV is addressed both by national legal and policy documents – which include specific legislation such as Criminal Codes, dedicated legal acts, Gender Equality Strategies outlining educational, awareness-raising and other measures – and at the EU level. You have already learned about relevant EU documents, such as the Istanbul Convention and the Directive on violence against women and domestic violence. Other important legal documents are the Anti-Trafficking Directive, the Victims of Crime Directive, the Directive on the sexual abuse and exploitation of children and pornography. Alongside legal documents, policy documents such as the Gender Equality Strategy 2020-2025. While these legal and policy documents are quite complex, it is just important to know that they exist and the role that they have in the EU in directing prevention, protection and prosecution efforts.

Gender-based violence has various manifestations and being aware of them is instrumental to better identifying them. The Istanbul Convention (2011), which you learned about in Unit 1 details various forms of GBV including: physical, verbal, psychological, sexual, and socio-economic violence.

Please note that the list above is not exhaustive – e.g. under sexual violence one should include reproductive violence, which has to do with controlling and curtailing a person’s free exercise of reproductive rights, from use of contraceptives, access to abortion and other. Moreover, one form of violence does not exclude the other. For instance, it is increasingly common in the context of intimate partner relationships to talk of coercive control to identify a frequent pattern of abuse where different forms of GBV coexist and overlap (Myhill & Hohl, 2019; Macdonald et al., 2024; Tolmie et al., 2023)

It is important to note that these forms of GBV can take place in the private and intimate sphere – at home – as well as in the public sphere – at work, at school, at uni, at a youth club, on the street. Perpetrators can include family members, current or former intimate partners, people whom we consider friends, co-workers, bosses, acquaintances and strangers. It is crucial to note that GBV can and does also take place online. Given the increased rise in GBV perpetrated online, it is now common to refer to technology-facilitated GBV (often preferred to as online or cyber violence, because it emphasises how technology is used as means).

Sexual harassment and stalking are among the most frequently reported types of technology-facilitated GBV. Common tactics include the non-consensual sharing of intimate images (image-based sexual abuse), persistent unwanted messages, intrusive phone calls, and harmful social media posts. Victims/survivors may be targeted through comment sections, overwhelmed with explicit content, or even tracked using GPS and location-sharing apps. This form of digital abuse often extends beyond screens, having serious consequences in their offline lives as well. What is crucial to keep in mind is that technology has both enhanced and worsened existing forms of GBV, but also created new forms of abuse, such as deepfakes. Fake digital content which involves manipulation of someone’s photos or videos to make them of a sexualised nature, or to use them to threaten, intimate or humiliate the person involved in a GBV dynamic. Deep fakes can also involve AI-generated images of GBV. If you’re interested in learning more about all the different types of TFGBV, please check out this summary on the Violenciadigital website as well as the dedicated course module on this topic.

Recognising the signs of GBV is a very important step in prevention. Identifying early warning signs of abuse can go a long way toward preventing the escalation of violence and youth workers, educators, bystanders, and even peers have a key role in this. At the same time, recognising violence requires also a mindful, respectful, informed and coordinated approach. Given the sensitivity of the matter at hand, before intervening, you should consult with experts in the field. This should not discourage you from taking action, but rather should prompt you to reflect on how to intervene in the most effective manner, minimising potential side-effects and risks, in each and every situation.

These are generic signs – different forms of violence are generally associated with specific signs. Moreover, there is no one sign of GBV and the specificities of each situation and individuals concerned should always be taken into account.

You should also keep an eye out for language and beliefs as these can be important warning signs of toxic masculinity and endorsement of gender stereotypes that might be conducive to violence. Use of misogynistic, homophobic, or transphobic slurs; expressing beliefs that normalise male dominance or justify violence (“She asked for it,” “Boys will be boys”); endorsing gender stereotypes around emotional expression, strength, or sexual activity (Connell, 2005) are all symptoms of problematic masculinity. Toxic/hegemonic masculinity refers to cultural norms that associate masculinity with dominance, suppression of emotions, and aggression (Connell, 2005). These ideas often encourage boys and young men to devalue empathy, view control as strength, and equate violence with power. Please note that when these beliefs are expressed by women and girls, they speak to internalised patriarchal norms as a result of socialisation and should also be addressed via ad-hoc interventions and educational measures.

Common expressions of toxic/hegemonic masculinity include the suppression of emotional vulnerability (“man up”); the acceptance or glorification of aggressive sexual behaviour; and peer pressure to conform to dominant behaviour, often at the expense of others (Connell, 2025).

Spending time on forums spreading misogynistic views of women is also a common expression of toxic masculinity and a warning sign of abusive behaviour. Such digital spaces are often referred to as the ‘manosphere’ where users engage in anti-feminist and misogynistic discourse, often rooted in feelings of sexual entitlement, male victimhood, and rejection by women (Ging, 2019, p. 639). Many young people are vulnerable to Incel discourse, as the Netflix documentary “Adolescence” (2025) has shown. Youth who are exposed to these beliefs may either: perpetuate violence (as perpetrators) or internalise harm (as victims or silent bystanders).

Gender Stereotypes Fuel GBV by reinforcing power imbalances, minimising the seriousness of abuse against women, LGBTIQA+ individuals, and boys and silencing victims who don’t fit the “ideal victim” profile (Our Watch, 2021; WHO, 2021).